Fossil Fuels And Its Impacts On Society - 1506 Words

Earth has provided us with various fossil fuels and natural resources that we need to live an adequate life. However, as fossil fuels dwindle and the human population continues to grow, the livelihood of humanity is threatened. Furthermore, the use of fossil fuels has several negative impacts on society. For example, fossil fuels pose a serious danger to the environmental through climate changes and global warming. Additionally, as fossil fuels become more scarce the prices will significantly increase. One way to alleviate the negative impacts of fossil fuels is by investing research and development into sustainability. Sustainability refers to the use of renewable energy resources to sustain the current processes of society and the economy. Sustainability also encompasses the idea that any developments should meet the requirements of the current society without affecting the capability of future generations to meet their requirements. As water supply systems continue to dwindle, new sustainability technologies have emerged that will allow society to overcome the challenges of scarce clean and fresh water. There are several ways in which to define sustainability. In essence, sustainability refers to our ability to sustain our current needs without negatively impacting future generation’s ability to meet their needs. However, sustainability can also refer to improving human life while respecting Earth’s ecosystems. Essentially, sustainability to me means using technologyShow MoreRelatedThe Drilling Of The Oil922 Words   |  4 PagesPetroleum is made into various products such as gasoline/ diesel fuel, home heating oil, fertilizers, and plastic products (Energy Quest 2012). 74 percent of our oil is used for transportation including, trucks, buses, cars, and planes (Energy Quest 2012). Drilling of the oil is a costly process and has severe effects to the environment. Drilling on land requires a lot of space, disturbing the natural animal habitats, while drilling at sea impacts surrounding marine life (ELI 2015). Petroleum is toxic andRead MoreFossil Fuels : The Source Of E nergy1709 Words   |  7 Pagestoday’s society fossil fuels are the primary source of energy for most of the industrialized world. Utilizing fossil fuels has been vital to the industrialization development. Throughout industrialization of many parts of the world, energy has been needed at a much higher density then before and fossil fuels have fulfilled that need. Coal, gas, and oil are the three major sources of fossil fuels in the world. Despite other means of energy, such as wind power, hydroelectric power and so on, fossil fuelsRead MoreFossil Fuels And Their Impact On The Environment862 Words   |  4 PagesFossil Fuels and Their Impact on the Environment The amount of fossil fuels being deposited into the air should be controlled. Not only do fossil fuels pose a threat to the environment, but also to human health. The problem is not only noticeable in the depletion of human health, but also in the air, water, and land. Emissions are a concerning contribution to other problems such as global warming and greenhouse gases as well. One of the major factors of fossil fuels are vehicles. VehiclesRead MoreAdvantages Of Fossil Fuels998 Words   |  4 PagesWhat are fossil fuels? Fossil fuels are a type of gas that dominate the energy sources. Fossil fuels are one of the most used and they are starting to run out. They are mostly used due their low prices. They estimate that by the end of the 21st century fossil fuel nuclear What are fossil fuels? Fossil fuels are a type of gas that dominate the energy sources. Fossil fuels are one of the most used and they are starting to run out. They are mostly used due their low prices. They estimate that by theRead MoreThe Sources Of Fossil Fuels1429 Words   |  6 PagesThis paper will discuss the three main fossil fuels which are oil, coal, and natural gas. This research shows how the fossil fuels are formed, where they could be found, and explain how they were formed over millions of years. This paper will show the numerous advantages of fossil fuels compared to the disa dvantages and how they are hurting the Earth. Fossils fuels are critical to the function of everyday life. The world would be a different if fossil fuels and their uses were not to of use. Read MoreThe World s Dependence On Fossil Fuels1706 Words   |  7 PagesDependence on Fossil Fuels Introduction: When you think of fossil fuels what comes to mind? Perhaps you think of the massive oil rigs set up around the world or maybe your mind wonders to how fossil fuels formed in the Earth millions of years ago. Truthfully the full extent of our usage of fossil fuels around the world is widely not realized. Around the Christmas season as you decorate your Christmas trees consider this: if your Christmas tree is artificial then it is likely manufactured with fossil fuelsRead MoreThe Importance Of Obesity1408 Words   |  6 Pageseffects on society, such as negative externalities. These can be presented in four categories: direct medical costs, human capital costs, productivity costs and transportation costs. This essay will focus on the transportation costs from an economic point of view. The laws of physics state that a heavier load requires more energy to travel the same distance as a lighter one. Since obese people have a higher body weight than average, their transportation in larger vehicles requires more fuel which imposesRead MoreAlternative Energy Sources Essay1652 Words   |  7 PagesRevolution, people have utilized fossil fuels to power their homes, cars, and businesses. Unfortunately, our stores of fossil fuels are running low, and they have been demonstrated to increase the temperature in the atmosphere and accelerate global warming. As gas prices steadily rise, people need a newer, cleaner source of energy. The alternatives are numerous and would be beneficial to the well being of the whole world. The human race must replace its fossil fuel use with renewable resources inRead MoreRenewable Energy Is Important For Our Environment1610 Words   |  7 PagesOne of the most important ecological changes needed not only in this country, but globally would be the transition from fossil fuels and coal to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, hydroelectric, and biofuels in an attempt to reduce carbon emissions, which in turn pollute the environment and contribute to adverse climate change. Even though renewable energy is able to regenerate, does not mean that it has no ecological footprint or that renewable energy is completely sustainable for ourRead MoreHow Can The United States Lessen Its Dependence On Fossil Fuels?1302 Words   |  6 PagesHow can the United States lessen its dependence on fossil fuels? Joan Milton Western Governor’s University How can the United States lessen its dependence on fossil fuels? Introduction The U.S obtains more than 84% of its energy from fossil fuels including oil, coal and natural gas. This is because people rely on it to heat their homes, power industries, run vehicles, manufacturing, and provision of electricity. It is apparent that the country’s transportation industry highly depends on

Positive Sides Of Unrestricted Internet Access - 897 Words

Positive sides of unrestricted internet access: Necessity of unrestricted internet access can be figured out by the positive effects of internet into our daily life. Now-a-days, a person can’t think about life without internet. 1. Faster Communication 2. Abundant Information Resources 3. Entertainment 4. Social Networking and Staying Connected 5. Services 6. E-Commerce 7. Inexhaustible Education Some of the positive sides are described below: Faster Communication Communication is the primary aim of internet. It has shined outside the hope. Internet is the greatest invention of mankind s for communication yet. Modernizations are going on to make it faster, more reliable. In a fraction of second, we can communicate with a person who is†¦show more content†¦For example, Websites such as eBay allow customers to bid, buy, sell, and even auction products online. Inexhaustible Education The Internet has turned into a necessary propagator of knowledge, both through free as well as paid services. The reliability of this shape of education is usually established through the quality and validity of satisfied presented by each website. The World Wide Web has become a remarkable avenue for the academically unprivileged, to amass greater knowledge and know-how on subjects [Pakhare, J. (n.d.). Advantages and Disadvantages of the Internet. Retrieved October 1, 2014.]. The complete scope of distance education has extended. This is because, the increase of accessibility to videos of teachers giving lectures, showing diagrams and explaining concepts are much like a real classroom. Nonprofit organizations have websites to seek volunteers and donations in order to need. Some sites are dedicated themselves to spreading knowledge among the people of all age groups. For example: Wikipedia, Coursera, Babbel, Archive, and Teachertube. Negative sides of unrestricted access to Internet: Freedom is something many take for granted, especially when it comes to the Internet [COLE, C. (n.d.). Risks of unrestricted access to Internet - Roland Technology Group. Retrieved October 1, 2014.]. Some countries figured out some risk of freedom in internet access.Show MoreRelatedThe Current Youth s Participation858 Words   |  4 PagesTechnological progression has expanded a person’s understanding or the opportunity to further one’s understanding on health. This advancement has a number of positive effects on our developing youth. The main benefit of youth’s relationship with technology is having a source of information readily available for their serious inquires. The internet is a prime method of accessing crucial data that is not available to them in their traditional education. The obvious advantage to this is that youth can beRead MoreHelp Save the Internet Essay1392 Words   |  6 PagesEvery time we access the Internet we can expect that what ever we type we can obtain with no problems. This might become the old way of the Internet we took for granted because this might start changing and it’s not for the good of consumers. Companies like Comcast, Verizon and ATT, are fighting for the right to control what content you are able to see and even discriminate on how fast a website should load or if it should even load at all. They also want to create a toll on the Internet and chargeRead More Abortion in the United States Essay3509 Words   |  15 Pagesabortion is so divisive, it must be examined closely in order to understand the complex underlying issues; only then can a reasonable position be recommended. 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When a study was done determining the willingness for people to pay for the mitigation of information security both personal and external, the study found that peopleRead MoreHow Youth Online Culture Is Perceived1489 Words   |  6 Pagesnegative and result from the moral panic of current society promoted by the media. Gray’s blog article (2014) draws attention to and challenges stereotypical views that adults hold about youth online. Firstly, that youth are simply wasting time on the internet when they could be doing school work, going out, or being active. Secondly, that it is socially isolating, preventing youth from going out and physically interacting with peers in person. Thirdly, that youth do not understand the concepts of privacyRead MoreHow Internet Is Negatively Impacting Carolina Day School s Environment1693 Words   |  7 Pageshas found that 92% of teens are online daily, with open access to harmful material that can affect developing minds permanently, and set up habits that can damage their potential for success in the future. An even more shocking 24% of teens say that they are online â€Å"almost constantly.† As a tenth grader in Carolina Day’s upper school, I’ve witnessed the daily activities of students who confirm these statistics. To them, navigating the internet is second nature, and that is where the real danger liesRead More Abortion Essay4131 Words   |  17 Pagesthen under what circumstances? Abortion has been one of the most heatedly debated topics in the U.S. for more than a century. This paper explores the history and international use of abortion, as well as the empirical and m oral claims made by both sides of the issue. We will also examine the key positions taken on abortion and look at those affected by it. Based on extensive research and analysis, this paper will recommend that the government increase abortion funding and availability. AbortionRead MoreHow Censorship Is Necessary Or Harmful?2561 Words   |  11 Pagessense of divergence with internet users on whether or not censorship is necessary or actually needed. Everyone has their own beliefs. A number of people believe that some things must be censored, while others thinks that everyone must have the freedom to watch anything they wants or search any of the information they want. B. i) Internet growth and evaluation When you come to think of it†¦the internet is only one that has an ample amount of information. Exploring the internet for specific informationRead More Affirmative Action Essay4755 Words   |  20 Pagesrealized that in order to serve society better, they needed to diversify because minorities in combination with white males help enrich the learning experience for all. Increasing the percentage of minority physicians can also help improve health access for URMs, and broaden the medical research agenda to address many hidden health problems in America. In short, a more diverse organization can tackle more goals and problems, and deal with them more effectively. The proof of this is the fact thatRead More Internet Essay - Online Anonymity and Cyberspace Crime2064 Words   |  9 PagesOnline Anonymity and Cyberspace Crime The 90s internet boom gave rise to new ways of writing in through access to cyberspace. What used to be printed or handwritten on physical surfaces such as paper, cardboard, or bulletin boards has changed to 0s and 1s, bits and bytes of digitized information that can be displayed thru the projections of computer screens. Moreover, the internet has made the process of publishing ones works, writing letters, or chatting with one another much easier and

Positive Child Guidance (Managing Challenging Behaviour †Tantrums and Biting) Free Essays

Focus It is important to remember that almost all young children display stages of â€Å"inappropriate† or challenging behaviours such as biting, tantrums, clinging or hitting at various times in their development. These behaviours are usually short-lived and typically improve with guidance and age. There are some children, however, whose challenging behaviours may increase and result in injury to self or others, cause damage to property, interfere with acquiring new skills and/or social isolation. We will write a custom essay sample on Positive Child Guidance (Managing Challenging Behaviour – Tantrums and Biting) or any similar topic only for you Order Now This report investigates the possible causes for challenging behaviors (focusing primarily on tantrums and biting) in infants, toddlers and young children and positive child guidance strategies that are important as the basis for intervention and prevention. It is important to intervene in such a way that appropriate, pro-social behaviors are taught, modeled, and reinforced to ensure lifelong success. 18 June 2011 J M Badenhorst-Awasthi ID: 20090950 Introduction On average about 10 % of children younger than five display challenging behaviours (Tremblay, 2000). There has been an increase of children exhibiting challenging behaviours serious enough for parents and teachers to get concerned about disrupting family functioning and classroom routines (Powell, Dunlap and Fox, 2006). It is necessary for parents and teachers (adults) to work collaboratively in identifying causes of challenging behaviour and implementing relevant positive child guidance strategies that will promote pro-social and acceptable behaviour (Kaiser and Rasminsky, 2003). Pro-social / Acceptable Behaviour Conroy and Brown (2004) highlight the following skills or pro-social behaviours that children should acquire before the age of five (on average): Getting along with others Following directions Regulating and identifying emotions Conflict resolutions / solutions Persisting on a task Engaging in social conversations Cooperative play Positive Child Guidance [PCG] An increasingly familiar term in the field of Early Childhood Education is â€Å"Positive Child Guidance†. PCG techniques, instead of Punitive Discipline Techniques are endorsed by experts as the best way to respond to challenging behaviour (Flicker and Hoffman, 2002; Miller, 2007). PCG is a process wherein adults use certain strategies, e. g. reasoning, giving choices, problem-solving, negotiation and redirection, when dealing with challenging behaviour (Miller, 2007; Porter, 2003). Challenging behaviours (e. g. tantrums and biting) are seen as an opportunity for negotiation, learning and resolution, instead of something that requires children to be disciplined or punished for (Berk, 2006; Miller, 2007). Factors that influence challenging behaviour According to Flicker and Hoffman (2004) there are various factors that influence challenging behaviour: ? ? ? ? ? Emotional: boredom, anxiety, low self-esteem, fear, overstimulation Family: sibling rivalry, divorce, domestic violence, abuse Classroom: overcrowding, too much clutter, excessive noise Physical: hunger, fatigue, illness, soiled nappy Learning difficulties: speech and language, ADD/ADHD Environmental: poor housing, poverty, community violence Before deciding on the most effective guidance strategy it is v ery important for adults to consider the (potential) contributing factors. PCG is not a â€Å"one-size-fits-all† approach. It involves developing a close, trusting relationship with the children and parents and â€Å"individualizing† approaches (Kaiser and Rasminsky, 2003). TANTRUMS Definition A tantrum / temper tantrum is an emotional outburst, usually associated with children that are in emotional distress. Typical characteristics are crying, screaming, defiance, anger, stubbornness, ranting, resisting attempts to be pacified and sometimes hitting or kicking (Kaiser and Rasminsky, 2003). Tantrums most commonly happen when children believe (wrongly or rightly) that their wants (not necessarily their needs) are not being met (Ministry of Education [MoE], 1996). Typically tantrums will occur in children aged between 16 months and three / four years (Berk, 2006). Influencing Factors The physical environment may affect young children’s behaviour, e. g. inadequate space, noise levels and traffic patterns in the classroom (Miller, 2007; Strain and Hemmeter, 1999). Classroom schedules and routines may be a factor. Children need routines but with some flexibility. It is often the transition times that prove most problematic (Miller, 2007). Children might learn (after the first tantrum) that it is an effective way to get what they want and therefore keep repeating this behaviour (Kaiser and Rasminsky, 2003). Tantrums might occur when a child wants a toy that is being used by another child (jealousy) (Conroy and Brown, 2004). Often tantrums will happen when an adult says â€Å"no† to a child e. g. when changing or leaving an activity or fun place (e. g. when it’s time for tea / lunch) or when asked to do something they don’t want to do (e. g. cleaning up) (Tremblay, 2002). A CNN Health Report concluded that there are neurological influences for tantrums. The prefrontal cortex, (part of the brain), which is responsible for emotional and social regulation is not yet developed in children and they are therefore less likely to have the required skills to negotiate a more controlled behaviour (New Freedom Commission on Mental Health, 2003). Positive Child Guidance Strategies Teachers should make use of observations to establish which factor(s) is/are influencing tantrums. Only by understanding the factor can appropriate strategies be applied (Miller, 2007). There should be minimal disruptive transitions and fair warning before it occurs. Ensure children know the routine. Teachers should model and praise appropriate behaviour (Miller, 2007). Adults should not give up / give in when a child has a tantrum. Children might learn that a tantrum is an effective and immediate means of getting what they want. Other children might learn and copy this behaviour (Alter and Conroy, 2006). Careful planning is very important. Teachers should identify potential triggers and formulate solutions in advance (MoE, 1996). Children with a tendency for tantrums should be encouraged to do relaxing activities such as water play, play dough or the sandpit. It is inappropriate to expect toddlers to sit for long periods of time or to engage in large group activities. It is better to arrange short, engaging mat times and small group activities (Slee and Hemmeter, 1999). It is important to have enough toys so that all children have an opportunity to play at the same time. Some centres will deliberately have less toys to encourage problem-solving and negotiation skills. Through observations teachers should identify high interest toys and possible tantrums (Kaiser and Rasminsky, 2003). BITING Definition Biting is a distressing and common behaviour for children aged between fourteen months and two years (Kaiser and Rasminsky, 2003). Influencing Factors Probably the most common factor for biting is that children of this age are frustrated when they are unable to use words to communicate their needs or wants. Toddlerhood is a time of strong emotions and few words. It is a time of many changes and the feelings (coupling these changes) can sometimes lead to biting (Berk, 2006). Changes that bring about strong emotions and stress can makes children more prone to biting, e. g. otty training, transitioning to a different room (age group in the centre) or a new sibling (Conroy and Brown, 2004). Sometimes infants and young toddlers might bite when they are teething. Biting eases the irritation and pain of teething (Berk, 2006; Kaiser and Rasminsky, 2003). Hunger and thirst could also be an influencing factor (Berk, 2006). Infants use biting and sucking as a means of exploring and making sense of the physical world. Most objects (that is big enough) will go into an infant/ toddler’s mouth (Slee and Hemmeter, 1999). Sometimes children bite when they actually want to kiss someone (Conroy and Brown, 2004). Biting may occur when children are seeking attention. This behaviour mostly causes disturbance and focuses the adult’s attention on the child who bites. Children could also investigate / experiment the cause and effect of biting – seeing / testing what will happen when biting (Conroy and Brown, 2004). Positive Child Guidance Strategies It is important for adults to talk to the child and acknowledge that these changes can be difficult and give the child the opportunity to express their feelings appropriately (Berk, 2006; Alter and Conroy, 2006). Teachers can ask the parents if the child has a favourite â€Å"teething toy†. For toddlers a teething ring / toy can be pinned to their clothes (attached to a short string) and older children can carry a toy in their pockets. Adults should encourage children to use it when they feel like biting. Some children are comforted by a frozen teething toy as this numbs the area and eases discomfort more. For infants and toddlers the adult can wet a cloth and put it in the freezer. The child can easily suck and chew on this (Kaiser and Rasminsky, 2003). Toddlers and young children should not go for more than two hours without food. It is also important that adults regularly offer children liquids as well. To ease late morning tendency of biting adults can offer a mid-morning snack that is crunchy and chewy such as pretzels, rice crackers or biscuits (Slee and Hemmeter, 1999). Adults should ensure that the objects that infants play with are not small enough to swallow. To measure the size of objects try fitting it inside a toilet paper roll. If it fits then it is too small. Adults should ensure that appropriate teething toys are available (Slee and Hemmeter, 1999). Teach children the appropriate way of showing affection. How to kiss or hug can be taught. Children should first be taught to consider whether children want a hug or kiss. Adults should teach children to listen to the words that people use when they don’t want to be kissed (Conroy and Brown, 2004). To teach the child who has bitten empathy get him/her involved in calming and caring for the person who was bitten (e. g. getting an ice pack). If they see the obvious pain and discomfort and adults asking prompting questions it might discourage a child from biting again (Porter, 2003). Factors and Strategies for both Tantrums and Biting There are some factors that may lead to both tantrums and biting which include boredom or frustration when children are not adequately engaged with peers, teachers or materials and activities in the centre or at home. Adults should ensure that the materials and activities are engaging, challenging and entertaining for all ages and stages of development. Children should be given a choice of activities which may minimize boredom or frustration (Porter, 2003). Feelings of jealousy or the need for love / attention could also cause tantrums and biting. It is important that adults treat each child equally and fairly. Adults should be consistent in PCG strategy so children can know the boundaries, expectations and acceptable behaviour (Flicker and Hoffman, 2002). . There is a relationship between language inefficiency and challenging behaviours. Children with a language inability will often use tantrums or biting (although inappropriate) to communicate their needs (Hemmeter and Ostrosky, 2006). Hyter (2003) suggest that adults should help develop language skills through songs, repetitions and reading books (See Appendix C) so that children can express themselves verbally instead of resorting to tantrums or biting (Porter, 2003). Conclusion This report highlighted various factors that influence challenging behaviour (tantrums and biting). For this reason adults (teachers and parents) should work collaboratively in identifying the influencing factor(s) and applying the most effective and appropriate prevention and intervention strategies to increase compliance and the child’s development of self regulation and appropriate pro-social behaviours (Berk, 2006; Fox, Dunlap and Cushing, 2002; Kaiser and Rasminsky, 2003; Miller, 2007 ). How to cite Positive Child Guidance (Managing Challenging Behaviour – Tantrums and Biting), Papers

Consideration is one of the Elements of a Valid Contract Sample

Questions: 1.Based on the above Provision, discuss the Consideration as one of the Elements of a valid Contract under the Malaysian law. By referring to the Statutes and decided cases, Compare the Position of Consideration between the Malaysian law and the English law. 2.Choose ONE Insurance Company and ONE takaful company in Malaysia. Compare and Discuss the Principles related to Insurance Contract Offered by both Companies. Support your Discussion with relevant Provisions from the Statutes. Answers: Introduction 1.Consideration is one of the elements of a valid contract. Generally, consideration is the price that a party pays pursuant to the contract. In order to understand what consideration is, a party to a contract should ask himself or herself what benefits he or she derives from the agreement or the promise. The courts in trying to establish an existence of a valid contract will establish whether there was a consideration or not. The courts will not be looking at the adequacy of a consideration since it does not matter how small it could be. Under s.2 of Contracts Act 1950 (My), the definition of a consideration is a price which a party gives in relation to a promise made to him. Such a promise is for doing something or not to do an act pursuant to the terms therein. A consideration would, therefore, be payable where a party has done something as agreed. There are two requirements that form a valid consideration. First is the legal sufficiency, in other words, the value of the performance ought to be equivalent to the value of the consideration. Secondly, the consideration must be bargained by both parties. Parties should agree on the consideration that would be payable in such an instance. Again, a party to a contract cannot rely on what he ought to statutorily do in establishing a consideration. A party to a contract should act beyond what he is ordinarily supposed to be doing. A promise by an individual or a performance of a duty that such a person is obligated to do not amount to consideration. On the aspect of bargained for, there is an exchange of promise between the contracting parties, both parties benefit from the contract or they get a detriment in accordance with their agreed terms. Under Malaysian contract laws, there are several rules relating to consideration. I have here below discussed the rules relating to both Malaysia and England and made a comparison. Past consideration Under Malaysian law of contract, it is considered that past consideration is good enough to establish a valid contract. The court applied this rule in the case of Kepong Prospecting Ltd Ors v. Schmidt (1968). A past consideration generally entails an act performed before the contract came into place. In many jurisdictions, a past consideration is not usually relied upon and is unenforceable in the court of law since it entails an act or a promise made in the past before the contract came into place. Subject to s.2 (d) and 26 of Contracts Act 1950 (My), a past consideration is valid. It has been argued by the proponents of past consideration that the courts should not be concerned whether the consideration was made earlier or not. They argue that provided there is a consideration the courts should endeavor to give effect to that consideration. As stated here above, past consideration is not enforceable in other jurisdiction, especially under common law jurisdictions. The court in the case of Re McArdle (1951) the court of appealed re-emphasized that a past consideration was unenforceable. This was in relation to a promised made after the performance. Natural love and affection as a consideration The Malaysian case of Re Tan Soh Sim Ors v Tan Saw Keow (1951), defined what natural love and affection are. In this case a mother who was about to die wanted her property to be given to her adopted children, however, the court held that since there was no natural love and affection, such a promise would not be enforceable. The promised was also unwritten. Therefore, there are instances where a valid contract would be held to be existing even though a consideration might be lacking. Natural love and affection is such an instance where consideration needs not be provided. Under Malaysian Contract Act 1950 (My) s.26 (a) natural love and affection ought to be in writing in order for it to be enforceable in Malaysia. Natural love and affection are however not a valid consideration under common law jurisdictions. In the case of Brett v JS Wife[1600] 79 ER 9 7 (2003), the court was of the view that natural love and affection does not constitute a valid consideration hence cannot be enforced by the courts. Who provides a consideration? Under common law, a consideration is ordinarily made by the promisee. The promisor ordinarily makes a promise where the promisee must provide a consideration in accordance with the promise made. However, under Malaysian, any person to a contract may enforce that contract even though he has not made or advanced any consideration. The consideration is not also always given by the promisee as is the case in common law jurisdiction. What stands out under Malaysian Contract law is the fact that a third party to the contract can provide the consideration. Pursuant to s.2 (d) of the Contracts Act 1950 (My), a third party can provide consideration. This principle can be dated back to the case of Venkata Chinnaya v Verikatara Ma'ya (1881), where the court gave effect to an instance where a third party had given the consideration. Consideration Need Not Be Adequate but Sufficient Generally, a consideration under contract law does not need to be adequate. The courts will not inquire into the adequacy of a consideration but would simply establish whether there was a consideration in place. The reason for such a decision by the courts is that parties are free to contract on whatever terms they agree on even if they are absurd or inadequate in the eyes of a reasonable person. The House of Lords in Chappel Co v Nestle (1960), held that where the economic value of the consideration is so trivial, the court would still hold a to contract to be valid. Under the Malaysian Contract law section 26, the consideration provided need not be adequate unless consent was given out of duress. In the case of Phang Swee Kim v Beh I Hock (1964) the court held that what is important is for a consideration to be present. The adequacy of the consideration is irrelevant. As I have highlighted here above, as an exception to this instance, a party to an agreement cannot claim to have provided a consideration where statutorily he performed that which he ought to have done Part Payment of Debt As a general rule, part payment of the debt does not discharge a party from payment of the outstanding balance. Therefore, part payment is not a good consideration for a discharge of the debt. However, as an exception to this principle, when parties to a contract agree that part payment is or would be for the satisfaction of the full debt, the creditor would not again sue for the outstanding balance. This principle was established in the In Pinnel's Case (1602). Where a third party is supposed to partly pay the debt as agreed for the satisfaction of the whole debt, the creditor would not sue for the outstanding balance. The court in the case of Hirachand Punamchand v Temple (1911), reiterated this principle. The court held that part payment by a third party is a valid consideration. Performance of a public duty The performance of an existing duty entails a situation where one of the parties in consideration to the promise made offers to perform what ordinarily he is supposed to do. The question that arises from here is whether in such an instance there is a good consideration. The court in the case of Currie v Misa (1875), expounded what a consideration is, and it stated that a consideration is a form of profit, benefit or advantaged gained from the agreement by a party. Consideration can also be a detriment, disadvantage or a loss occasioned under that agreement. Therefore, a consideration ought to be more than what a party is ordinarily supposed to do. The court in the case of Balfour V Balfour (1982) also held that a consideration is invalid if it entails a duty to perform what a party is ordinarily supposed to do. An existing contractual duty As a general rule, an existing contractual duty does not constitute a valid consideration. The court in the case of Stilk v Myrick (1809) held that where there is a pre-existing contractual obligation a valid consideration would be deemed to be lacking. However, if a party performs beyond his contractual duties there would be a valid consideration. The court reiterated this in the case of Hartley v Ponsonby(1857). In conclusion, from my discussion here above, it can be evident that Malaysia and English laws vary in some few rules relating to a valid contract. For instance, the issue of past consideration, a party who is advancing the consideration and natural love and affection in relation to consideration are examples of principles that vary between the two areas of jurisdiction. However, both jurisdiction share principles such as the performance of a public duty, pre-existing contractual obligations, consideration being adequate and not sufficient and part payment. 2.For purposes of our study herein, I will take Berjaya General Insurance Bhd and Great Eastern Takaful Berhad insurance companies. These companies are operational in Malaysia and they run insurance businesses. Great Eastern Takaful Berhad, which is a Takaful insurance company, offers insurances in many areas ranging from health, wealth, business and including savings. On the other hand, General Insurance Bhd which is a general insurance company offers insurance covers for traveling, for health and accidents among others. It is important to highlight the difference between the two companies in terms of their constitution. Takaful companies are Muslim related insurance companies. These companies must be compliant with Sharia law. In terms of its operation, it does not allow investment in income related fields. The other distinguishing feature between the two insurance companies is that for general insurance when a policy is bought the risks are pooled together and transferred to the insurance company. However, for Takaful participants and insurance companies, the participants generally do not transfer risks but they rather pool together their risks and share between each other (Jaffer, Ismail, Noor, Unwin Ajayi, 2010). Finally, the other distinguishing feature relates to shareholders fun. For insurance companies, this fund is owned by the company itself, since ordinarily all risks are transferred to the insurance company. For Takaful companies, however, the participants and operators in these companies own the shareholder's fund. Whenever a member encounters health issues or otherwise as provided under the policy, the donations made by the company are used to compensate. Now, let us turn to the principles of insurance that relate to the two insurances companies that I have referred to in the above paragraphs. The principle of utmost Good Faith Generally speaking, insurance law emanates from the law of contract. In contract, the parties to the contract ought to contract from utmost good faith (Kirke La Shelle Co. v. Paul Armstrong Co., 1933). The principle of utmost good faith is a fundamental principle in insurance law too. For insurance companies, the insured is supposed to provide true information within his knowledge on the subject matter to be insured. If wronged information is given, the insurers liability would be void and hence the insurer would not be compensated. In Takaful companies, this principle of insurance is also present. Its been resolved that this principle should be applied in Takaful companies (Thanasegaran, 2016). For these companies, whenever it is discovered that the terms of insurance were fraudulently given by the insured, he is not supposed to be compensated at whatsoever cost. The participant would, however, be given what he contributed to the shareholder's fund. The principle of utmost good faith has been thought to be in consonance with the Islamic Sharia law since it emphasizes on honesty in whichever activity that a person indulges in (Aziah, 2012). Principle of Insurable Interest For most insurance companies, this principle must be there. An insurer must have an insurable interest in a property that he or she seeks to insure (Insurance Act 1996 s. 186.2 (My). The above principle simply means that a property that you are seeking to insurer should either belong to you or you have an interest in the said property since you cannot insure what does not belong to you or in other words that which you have no pecuniary interests in. Insurance companies have this principle at hand. The only question that an insurer should ask himself is whether he would suffer if the said property or subject matter of insurance is affected. Therefore, for Malaysian insurance companies, a person seeking to purchase a policy must prove that they have an insurable interest. For Takaful companies, this principle has been incorporated too. During its 52nd meeting, the SAC has established that this principle does not offend Sharia law and hence it should be applicable to Takaful insurance companies. Principle of Contribution The principle of contribution is the same as the principle of indemnity (Insurance Act 1996 s.191 (My). Under this principle, the insurers are not supposed to profit from the transaction. Insurance companies are only supposed to get a compensation of what they lost and not anything or amount above. That would be contrary to the principle of contribution. Such a situation arises where an insured has purchased a policy in more than one insurer. Ordinarily, he would not be compensated above the amount that he lost. For Takaful companies and participants, an individual is only supposed to get a compensation of the amount that he lost (Takaful Act 1986 s. 16 (My). One of the principle elements in Takaful is also the contribution (s. 25). These companies only seek to indemnify and not profit a participant of in the scheme. Principle of Subrogation The principle of subrogation provides that an insured loses his right in relation to the subject matter after he has been compensated by the insurer (Soe, 1987). An insurer, for instance, would not go to a court of law to try to enforce his right in relation to the subject matter in which he has been compensated. The right in relation to the subject matter shifts to the insurer. In the above scenarios, the insurer is the one who usually pursues the interests of the insured, for instance, in claiming the amount that he paid the insured. It should not worry the insured the amount that would be payable since his claim would have already been settled by the insurer. The above principle is also applicable to Takaful insurance companies (Rose, 2013). Once the contributor has been paid the amount that he lost, the Takaful company would ordinarily take up the contributors interests and rights and seek to obtain the amount that is payable therefrom. Principle of Loss Minimization Under this principle, the insured should endeavor to ensure that the insured subject matter is well taken care of. There should be no negligence on the part of the insurer in handling the subject matter or else he faces the risk of not being compensated. The principle of loss minimization is used in many general insurance companies in Malaysia. For Takaful companies in Malaysia, this principle though silent, it is present. There is a committee in Takaful companies whose advice and opinion is to key to the operations relating to compensation. In these companies, elements of gambling, negligence or uncertainty established whether they exist or not (Mahmood, 1991). Therefore, an individual who is not sincere in relation to the subject matter in question cannot successfully claim for compensation. Principle of nearest cause The principle of the nearest cause (Giampietro, 2011), majorly applies to general insurance companies in Malaysia. It provides that where there are two or more likelihoods of causes of a loss, it is the nearest cause that would be assumed to have caused the loss. The above principle is essential to the insurer in trying to prove the cause of the loss and therefore who would pay the insurer. Distinguishing insurance principles behind Takaful There are few principles that distinguish Takaful insurance companies from other insurance companies. This paper discusses these principles here below. Risk Sharing Risk sharing is one of the key principles behind the formation of these companies. As I highlighted here above, participants in Takaful voluntarily contributes to forming a pool of resources that cover their risks. For conventional insurance companies, there is payment of premiums while in Takaful there is a voluntary contribution. At the end of the financial year, any surplus amount of loss occasioned is shared amongst the contributors. There is no such sharing in conventional insurance companies in Malaysia. Mutual responsibility and protection Takaful companies are meant to help individuals in the society that encounter misfortunes which were obviously unforeseeable. Takaful would help restore such persons to the position they were prior to the misfortune. They do not exist to make a profit, unlike conventional insurance companies. Mutual protection (Mahmood, 1991) is the consequence of mutual responsibility. Individuals are protected from losses that would obviously take them down. Risks that are otherwise not out of their fault are insured against and hence their future is taken care of. Solidarity Whenever the participants contribute to Takaful, they foster their solidarity (Takaful Act s. 4.2 (My). Takaful seems to bring Muslims together, this is especially because Muslim Sharia laws form part and parcel of the law that governs the insurance policies. Conclusion From my discussion here above, we have seen the differences in terms of the principles that govern both Takaful insurance companies and General insurance companies. To begin with, we should note that Takaful companies are Muslim related, seeking to insure them against health related incidences and generally their welfare. However, for general insurance companies in Malaysia, they are not based on religion and generally they operate general insurances running from travel related to personal insurance among others. There are several principles of insurances that are common between the two companies. They include the principle of utmost good faith, the principle of insurable interest, the principle of contribution, the principle of subrogation and principle of loss minimization. For Takaful companies, however, we should note all principles related thereto were supposed to be in consonance with Sharia law. A principle to which Sharia law is against cannot form part of the principles of insurance. Finally, what distinguishes Takaful companies is their solidarity. Their contribution is meant to foster their unity and to insure them from risks that might be occasioned. They also do not make a profit, a surplus amount is supposed to be shared by the contributors. Conventional companies are different since there is no contribution but instead there is payment of the premiums. References Aziah Abu Kasim, N. (2012). Disclosure of Shariah compliance by Malaysian takaful companies.Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research,3(1), 20-38. Balfour v. Balfour, 413 So. 2d 1167 (Ala. Civ. App. 1982). Chappell Co Ltd v. Nestle Co Ltd, 1960 A.C. 87 (1960). Contact Act (1950). Currie v. Misa, 10 Ex. 153 (1875). Giampietro, A. (2011). Proximate cause in Maritime Insurance. Hartley v. Ponsonby, 7 E. B. 872 (1857). Hirachand Punamchand v Temple[1911] 2 KB 330 In re McArdle, 1951 Ch 669 (1951). 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